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{{Other uses}}
  
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{{Infobox mythical creature
  
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|name = Vampire
  
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|AKA =
 
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|image = Burne-Jones-le-Vampire.jpg
  
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|image_size =
  
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|caption = ''The Vampire'', by [[Philip Burne-Jones]], 1897
  
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|Mythology =
 
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|Grouping = [[Legendary creature]]
  
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|Sub_Grouping = [[Undead]]
  
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|Parents =
 
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|Country = [[Transylvania]], [[England]]
  
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|Region = [[The Americas]], [[Europe]], [[Asia]], [[Africa]]
  
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|Habitat =
  
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|Similar_creatures = [[Revenant]], [[werewolf]]
  
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}}
  
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'''Vampires''' are mythological or [[folklore|folkloric]] beings who subsist by feeding on the life essence (generally in the form of blood) of living creatures, regardless of whether they are [[undead]] or a living person.<ref name=Levkievskaja>{{fr icon}} {{cite journal |last=Levkievskaja |first=E.E. |date=September 1997 |title=La mythologie slave : problèmes de répartition dialectale (une étude de cas : le vampire) |journal=Cahiers Slaves |volume=1 |url=http://www.recherches-slaves.paris4.sorbonne.fr/Cahier1/Levkievskaja.htm |accessdate=2007-12-29}}</ref><ref name="Cremene89">Créméné, ''Mythologie du Vampire'', p.&nbsp;89.</ref><ref name="Bunson, p. 219">Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p.&nbsp;219.</ref><ref>{{uk icon}} Словник символів, Потапенко О.І., Дмитренко М.К., Потапенко Г.І. та ін., 1997.[http://web.archive.org/web/20070927212332/http://www.ber.te.ua/cgi-bin/dic/dic.php?nom=359] online article.</ref><ref>{{cite book
  
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| last = Dundes
  
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| first = Alan
  
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| title = The Vampire: A Casebook
  
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| publisher = University of Wisconsin Press
  
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| year = 1998
  
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| page = 13
  
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| isbn = 0299159248 }}</ref><ref>
  
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{{cite encyclopedia
  
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| title = Vampire
  
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| encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Britannica
  
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| volume = 27
  
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| pages = 876
  
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| publisher = Encyclopaedia Britannica Company
  
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| year = 1911
  
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| accessdate = may 26, 2009}}</ref> In folkloric tales, the [[undead]] vampires often visited loved ones and caused mischief or deaths in the neighbourhoods they inhabited when they were alive. They wore shrouds and were often described as bloated and of ruddy or dark countenance, markedly different from today's gaunt, pale vampire which dates from the early 1800s. Although vampiric entities have been [[Vampire folklore by region|recorded in most cultures]], the term ''vampire'' was not popularised until the early 18th century, after an influx of vampire superstition into Western Europe from areas where vampire legends were frequent, such as the [[Balkans]] and Eastern Europe,<ref name="SU223">Silver & Ursini, ''The Vampire Film'', pp.&nbsp;22-23.</ref> although local variants were also known by different names, such as ''[[vrykolakas]]'' in [[Greece]] and ''[[strigoi]]'' in [[Romania]]. This increased level of vampire superstition in Europe led to what can only be called [[mass hysteria]] and in some cases resulted in corpses actually being staked and people being accused of vampirism.
  
   
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== Comic books ==
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In modern times, however, the vampire is generally held to be a fictitious entity, although belief in similar vampiric creatures such as the ''[[chupacabra]]'' still persists in some cultures. Early folkloric belief in vampires has been ascribed to the ignorance of the body's process of [[decomposition]] after death and how people in pre-industrial societies tried to rationalise this, creating the figure of the vampire to explain the mysteries of death. [[Porphyria]] was also linked with legends of vampirism in 1985 and received much media exposure, but has since been largely discredited.
  
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Comic books and graphic novels which feature vampires include ''[[Vampirella]]'' (Warren Publishing, 1969), ''[[Morbius, the Living Vampire]]'' (Marvel, 1971), ''[[Tomb of Dracula]]'' (Marvel Comics, 1972), ''[[Blade (comics)|Blade]]'' (Marvel, 1973), ''[[I...Vampire]]'' (DC Comics, 1981), ''[[Hellsing]]'' (Shonen Gahosha, 1997), ''[[30 Days of Night]]'' (IDW Publishing, 2002), ''[[Chibi Vampire]]'' (Monthly Dragon Age, 2003), "[[JoJo's Bizarre Adventure]]" (Weekly Shonen Jump 1986-2004, Ultra Jump 2004-) ''[[Rosario + Vampire]]'' (Monthly Shōnen Jump 2004), ''[[Vampire Knight]]'' (LaLa, 2005), ''[[Blood Alone]]'' (MediaWorks, 2005), ''[[Dracula vs. King Arthur]]'' (Silent Devil Productions, 2005), ''[[Dance in the Vampire Bund]]'' (Media Factory, 2006), ''[[Anita Blake: Vampire Hunter]]: Guilty Pleasures'' (Dabel Brothers Productions/Marvel Comics, 2007), ''Half Dead'' (Dabel Brothers Productions/Marvel Comics, 2007), ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight]]'' (Dark Horse Comics, 2007), ''[[Nosferatu (comics)|Nosferatu]]'' (Viper Comics, 2010), ''[[Twilight: The Graphic Novel]]'' (2010)<ref>http://www.stepheniemeyer.com/</ref> and ''[[He's My Only Vampire]]'' (Kodansha, 2010).<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2014-07-28/aya-shouoto-he-my-only-vampire-manga-will-end-in-2-more-chapters/.77050|title= Aya Shouoto's He's My Only Vampire Manga Will End in 2 More Chapters|date= 28 July 2014|accessdate= 28 July 2014|work= [[Anime News Network]]}}</ref>
   
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[[Proinsias Cassidy]], the supporting lead male in [[Garth Ennis]]'s comic book series ''[[Preacher (comics)|Preacher]]'' (DC/Vertigo, 1995), is a vampire of Irish origin. In addition, many major superheroes have faced vampire supervillains at some point. In the Belgo-French comic ''Le Bal du rat mort'',<ref>{{fr icon}}[[:fr:Le bal du rat mort|''Le Bal du rat mort'']]</ref> police inspector Jean Lamorgue is a hybrid vampire and he is a king of rats. He is guiding an invasion of [[rat]]s in [[Ostend]] and he sucks the blood of his human victims.
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The charismatic and sophisticated vampire of modern fiction was born in 1819 with the publication of ''[[The Vampyre]]'' by [[John William Polidori|John Polidori]]; the story was highly successful and arguably the most influential vampire work of the early 19th century.<ref name="SU378">Silver & Ursini, ''The Vampire Film'', pp.&nbsp;37-38.</ref> However, it is [[Bram Stoker|Bram Stoker's]] 1897 novel ''[[Dracula]]'' which is remembered as the quintessential [[Vampire literature|vampire novel]] and provided the basis of the modern vampire legend. The success of this book spawned a distinctive vampire [[genre]], still popular in the 21st century, with books, films, and television shows. The vampire has since become a dominant figure in the horror genre.
  
   
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In 2009, [[Zuda]] Comics launched [[La Morté Sisters]]. A story of teenage vampirism in a Catholic orphanage taking place in South [[Philadelphia]]. The story follows new girl Maddie in a world of ninja nuns and black magic.<ref>http://www.comicmonsters.com/features-1063-LaMorte_Sisters_Interview_with_Tony_Trov_and_Johnny_Zito.html</ref>
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== Etymology ==
  
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The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' dates the first appearance of the word ''vampire'' in English from 1734, in a travelogue titled ''Travels of Three English Gentlemen'' published in ''[[The Harleian Miscellany]]'' in 1745.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Vampire|encyclopedia=Oxford English Dictionary|editor=J. Simpson, E. Weiner (eds)|year=1989|edition=2nd |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=0-19-861186-2}}</ref> However, it should be noted that the original article did not actually use the spelling ''vampire,'' but used ''vampyre.''<ref>{{cite book |title=The harleian miscellany: A collection of scarce, curious, and entertaining pamphlets and tracts, as well in manuscript as in print. Vol. IV | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=h5ZCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA348&dq=Travels+of+Three+English+Gentlemen&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TZUVUraPGeaQigLU1IDQCA&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false |last=Johnson |first=Samuel (Ed.) |authorlink=Samuel Johnson|year=1745| publisher=T. Osborne|location=London|page=358}}</ref> Even earlier English language references to the word ''vampire'' can be found in the form of ''vampyre.'' An example is found in re-telling the famous case of [[Arnold Paole]] and [[Peter Plogojowitz]] in [[Serbia]], where the London Journal of March 11, 1732, describes ''vampyres'' in [[Hungary]] (actually [[Kingdom of Serbia (1718–1739)|northern Serbia]] under direct Austrian rule) as sucking the blood of the living.<ref>As quoted in The Gentleman's Magazine, May, 1732; Vol. 2, No. 17, pp.750-752 "Political Vampyres."</ref> Vampires had already been discussed in French<ref>Vermeir, K. (2012). Vampires as Creatures of the Imagination: Theories of Body, Soul, and Imagination in Early Modern Vampire Tracts (1659–1755). In Y. Haskell (Ed.), Diseases of the Imagination and Imaginary Disease in the Early Modern Period. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers.</ref> and German literature.<ref name=barber5/> After [[Austria]] gained control of northern Serbia and [[Oltenia]] with the [[Treaty of Passarowitz]] in 1718, officials noted the local practice of exhuming bodies and "killing vampires".<ref name=barber5/> These reports, prepared between 1725 and 1732, received widespread publicity.<ref name=barber5>Barber, p. 5.</ref>
  
   
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== Magazines ==
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The English term was derived (possibly via French ''vampyre'') from the German ''Vampir'', in turn derived in the early 18th century from the [[Serbian language|Serbian]] вампир/''vampir'',<ref name=Grimm>{{de icon}} {{cite web|url=http://germazope.uni-trier.de/Projects/WBB/woerterbuecher/dwb/wbgui?lemid=GV00025 |title=Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm. 16 Bde. (in 32 Teilbänden). Leipzig: S. Hirzel 1854–1960|accessdate=2006-06-13| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070926215950/http://germazope.uni-trier.de/Projects/WBB/woerterbuecher/dwb/wbgui?lemid=GV00025| archivedate = 26 September 2007}}</ref><ref name=MW>{{cite web |title=Vampire |publisher=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |url=http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/vampire |accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref><ref name=Tresor>{{fr icon}} {{cite web |url=http://atilf.atilf.fr/dendien/scripts/fast.exe?mot=vampire |title=Trésor de la Langue Française informatisé |accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref><ref>{{fr icon}} {{cite book |last=Dauzat |first=Albert|title=Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue française |year=1938 |publisher=Librairie Larousse |location=Paris |oclc=904687}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Weibel |first=Peter |title=Phantom Painting&nbsp;– Reading Reed: Painting between Autopsy and Autoscopy |publisher=David Reed's Vampire Study Center |url=http://thegalleriesatmoore.org/publications/vampirestudy/weiben12.shtml |accessdate=2007-02-23|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070927172528/http://thegalleriesatmoore.org/publications/vampirestudy/weiben12.shtml |archivedate = 27 September 2007|deadurl=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| publisher=ABC News| url=http://abcnews.go.com/International/vampire-threat-terrorizes-serbian-village/story?id=17831327| author= Dragana Jovanović| title= Vampire Threat Terrorizes Serbian Village| date= 29 November 2012| accessdate= 3 December 2012}}</ref> when Arnold Paole, a purported vampire in Serbia was described during the time when Northern Serbia was part of the [[Austrian Empire]].
  
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Magazines which feature vampires include ''Bite me'' magazine (launched 1999). Typical features include interviews with vampire actors, features on famous vampire film classics, vampire-related news, forthcoming vampire film and book releases.
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Defunct vampire magazines include ''Crimson'' (England); ''Journal of the Dark'' (USA), Father Sebastiaan's ''Vampyre Magazine'' (USA) and ''The Velvet Vampyre'' (available to members of the disbanded The Vampyre Society, England).
   
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==References==
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The Serbian form has parallels in virtually all [[Slavic languages]]: [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] вампир (''vampir''), [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]: ''lampir'', [[Croatian language|Croatian]] ''vampir'', [[Czech language|Czech]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]] ''upír'', [[Polish language|Polish]] ''wąpierz'', and (perhaps [[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]]-influenced) ''upiór'', [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] упир (''upyr<nowiki></nowiki>''), [[Russian language|Russian]] упырь (''upyr<nowiki>'</nowiki>''), [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] упыр (''upyr''), from [[Old East Slavic]] упирь (''upir<nowiki>'</nowiki>''). (Note that many of these languages have also borrowed forms such as "vampir/wampir" subsequently from the West; these are distinct from the original local words for the creature.) The exact [[etymology]] is unclear.<ref name=Tokarev>{{Ru icon}} {{cite book |last=Tokarev |first=Sergei Aleksandrovich |authorlink=Sergei Aleksandrovich Tokarev |title=Mify Narodov Mira|year=1982|publisher=Moscow |location=Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya|oclc=7576647}} ("Myths of the Peoples of the World"). Upyr'</ref> Among the proposed [[proto-Slavic language|proto-Slavic]] forms are *{{Unicode|ǫpyrь}} and *{{Unicode|ǫpirь}}.<ref name=Vasmer>{{Ru icon}} {{cite web|url=http://vasmer.narod.ru/p752.htm|title=Russian Etymological Dictionary by Max Vasmer|accessdate=2006-06-13}}</ref> Another, less widespread theory, is that the Slavic languages have borrowed the word from a [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] term for "witch" (e.g., [[Tatar language|Tatar]] ''ubyr'').<ref name=Vasmer/><ref>{{bg icon}}Mladenov, Stefan (1941). Etimologičeski i pravopisen rečnik na bǎlgarskiya knižoven ezik.</ref>
  
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{{reflist|2}}
   
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== Bibliography ==
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Czech linguist Václav Machek proposes Slovak verb "vrepiť sa" (stick to, thrust into), or its hypothetical anagram "vperiť sa" (in [[Czech language|Czech]], archaic verb "vpeřit" means "to thrust violently") as an etymological background, and thus translates "upír" as "someone who thrusts, bites".<ref>MACHEK, V.: Etymologický slovník jazyka českého, 5th edition, NLN, Praha 2010</ref>
  
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An early use of the [[Old Russian]] word is in the anti-[[pagan]] treatise "Word of Saint Grigoriy" (Russian ''Слово святого Григория''), dated variously to the 11th–13th centuries, where pagan worship of ''upyri'' is reported.<ref>{{Ru icon}} {{cite web |url=http://historic.ru/books/item/f00/s00/z0000031/index.shtml |title=Рыбаков Б.А. Язычество древних славян / М.: Издательство 'Наука,' 1981 г. |accessdate=2007-02-28}}</ref><ref name=period>{{Ru icon}} {{cite journal |last=Зубов |first=Н.И. |title=Загадка Периодизации Славянского Язычества В Древнерусских Списках "Слова Св. Григория ... О Том, Како Первое Погани Суще Языци, Кланялися Идолом..." |journal=Живая Старина |volume=1 |issue=17 |pages=6–10 |year=1998 |url=http://kapija.narod.ru/Ethnoslavistics/zub_period.htm |accessdate=2007-02-28}}</ref>
  
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== Folk beliefs ==
  
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{{see also|List of vampires in folklore and mythology}}
  
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The notion of vampirism has existed for millennia; cultures such as the [[Mesopotamia]]ns, [[Hebrews]], [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]], and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] had tales of demons and spirits which are considered precursors to modern vampires. However, despite the occurrence of vampire-like creatures in these ancient civilizations, the folklore for the entity we know today as the vampire originates almost exclusively from early-18th-century southeastern Europe,<ref name="SU223" /> when [[oral culture|verbal traditions]] of many ethnic groups of the region were recorded and published. In most cases, vampires are [[Revenant (folklore)|revenants]] of evil beings, suicide victims, or [[witch]]es, but they can also be created by a malevolent spirit [[demonic possession|possessing]] a corpse or by being bitten by a vampire. Belief in such legends became so pervasive that in some areas it caused mass hysteria and even [[public execution]]s of people believed to be vampires.<ref name="Cohen"/>
  
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=== Description and common attributes ===
  
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{{further|List of vampire traits in folklore and fiction}}
  
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[[Image:Munch vampire.jpg|thumb|''Vampyren'', "The Vampire", by [[Edvard Munch]]]]
  
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It is difficult to make a single, definitive description of the folkloric vampire, though there are several elements common to many European legends. Vampires were usually reported as bloated in appearance, and ruddy, purplish, or dark in colour; these characteristics were often attributed to the recent drinking of blood. Indeed, blood was often seen seeping from the mouth and nose when one was seen in its shroud or coffin and its left eye was often open.<ref name="Barb412">Barber, pp. 41–42.</ref> It would be clad in the linen shroud it was buried in, and its teeth, hair, and nails may have grown somewhat, though in general fangs were not a feature.<ref name="Barb2">Barber, p. 2.</ref>
  
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==== Creating vampires ====
  
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The causes of vampiric generation were many and varied in original folklore. In [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] and Chinese traditions, any corpse that was jumped over by an animal, particularly a dog or a cat, was feared to become one of the undead.<ref name="Barb30">Barber, p. 33.</ref> A body with a wound that had not been treated with boiling water was also at risk. In Russian folklore, vampires were said to have once been witches or people who had rebelled against the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] while they were alive.<ref name="Strange & Amazing">{{cite book|author=Reader's Digest Association |title=The Reader's Digest Book of strange stories, amazing facts: stories that are bizarre, unusual, odd, astonishing, incredible ... but true |year=1988 |publisher=Reader's Digest |location=London |isbn=0-949819-89-1 |pages=432–433 |chapter=Vampires Galore!}}</ref>
  
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Cultural practices often arose that were intended to prevent a recently deceased loved one from turning into an undead revenant. Burying a corpse upside-down was widespread, as was placing earthly objects, such as [[scythe]]s or [[sickle]]s,<ref name="Barb5051">Barber, pp. 50–51.</ref> near the grave to satisfy any demons entering the body or to appease the dead so that it would not wish to arise from its coffin. This method resembles the [[Ancient Greek]] practice of placing an [[Charon's obol|obolus in the corpse's mouth]] to pay the toll to cross the [[River Styx]] in the underworld; it has been argued that instead, the coin was intended to ward off any evil spirits from entering the body, and this may have influenced later vampire folklore. This tradition persisted in modern Greek folklore about the ''[[vrykolakas]],'' in which a wax cross and piece of pottery with the inscription "[[Jesus Christ]] conquers" were placed on the corpse to prevent the body from becoming a vampire.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lawson |first=John Cuthbert|title=Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion |pages=405–06 |year=1910 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |oclc=1465746 |isbn=0-524-02024-8}}</ref> Other methods commonly practised in Europe included severing the [[tendon]]s at the knees or placing [[poppy]] seeds, [[millet]], or sand on the ground at the grave site of a presumed vampire; this was intended to keep the vampire occupied all night by counting the fallen grains,<ref name="Barb49">Barber, p. 49.</ref> indicating an association of vampires with [[arithmomania]]. Similar Chinese narratives state that if a vampire-like being came across a sack of rice, it would have to count every grain; this is a theme encountered in myths from the [[India]]n subcontinent, as well as in South American tales of witches and other sorts of evil or mischievous spirits or beings.<ref name=Jaramillo>{{es icon}} {{cite book|last=Jaramillo Londoño|first=Agustín|title=Testamento del paisa |year=1986 |origyear=1967 |edition=7th |publisher=Susaeta Ediciones |location=Medellín |isbn=958-95125-0-X}}</ref>
  
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In [[Albania]]n folklore, the [[dhampir]] is the son of the ''karkanxholl'' or the ''lugat''. If the karkanxholl sleeps with his wife, and she is impregnated with a child, the offspring is called ''dhampir'' and has the unique ability to discern the karkanxholl; from this derives the expression ''the dhampir knows the lugat''. The ''lugat'' cannot be seen, he can only be killed by the dhampir, who himself is usually the son of a lugat. In different regions, animals can be revenants as lugats; also, living people during their sleep. ''Dhampiraj'' is also an Albanian surname.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=O5biAAAAMAAJ&q=dhampiri Gjurmime albanologjike, ''Folklor dhe etnologji''], Vol. 15, pp. 58–148.</ref>
  
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==== Identifying vampires ====
  
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Many elaborate rituals were used to identify a vampire. One method of finding a vampire's grave involved leading a virgin boy through a graveyard or church grounds on a virgin stallion—the horse would supposedly balk at the grave in question.<ref name="Strange & Amazing"/> Generally a black horse was required, though in Albania it should be white.<ref name="Barb6869">Barber, pp. 68–69.</ref> Holes appearing in the earth over a grave were taken as a sign of vampirism.<ref name="Barb125">Barber, p. 125.</ref>
  
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Corpses thought to be vampires were generally described as having a healthier appearance than expected, plump and showing little or no signs of decomposition.<ref name="Barb109">Barber, p. 109.</ref> In some cases, when suspected graves were opened, villagers even described the corpse as having fresh blood from a victim all over its face.<ref name="Barb1145">Barber, pp. 114–15.</ref> Evidence that a vampire was active in a given locality included death of cattle, sheep, relatives or neighbours. Folkloric vampires could also make their presence felt by engaging in minor [[poltergeist]]-like activity, such as hurling stones on roofs or moving household objects,<ref name="Barb96">Barber, p. 96.</ref> and [[mara (folklore)|pressing]] on people in their sleep.<ref name="Bun1689">Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', pp. 168–69.</ref>
  
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==== Protection ====
  
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[[Image:Ernst6-thumb.gif|thumb|left|An image from [[Max Ernst]]'s ''[[Une Semaine de Bonté]]'']]
  
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===== Apotropaics =====
  
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[[Apotrope|Apotropaics]], items able to ward off revenants, are common in vampire folklore. Garlic is a common example,<ref>Barber, p. 63.</ref> a branch of [[rosa acicularis|wild rose]] and [[Common hawthorn|hawthorn]] plant are said to harm vampires, and in Europe, sprinkling mustard seeds on the roof of a house was said to keep them away.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mappin |first=Jenni|title=Didjaknow: Truly Amazing & Crazy Facts About... Everything |year=2003 |publisher=Pancake |location=Australia|isbn=0-330-40171-8|page=50}}</ref> Other apotropaics include sacred items, for example a [[crucifix]], [[rosary]], or [[holy water]]. Vampires are said to be unable to walk on [[consecrate]]d ground, such as that of churches or temples, or cross running water.<ref>Burkhardt, "Vampirglaube und Vampirsage", p. 221.</ref> Although not traditionally regarded as an apotropaic, [[mirror]]s have been used to ward off vampires when placed, facing outwards, on a door (in some cultures, vampires do not have a reflection and sometimes do not cast a shadow, perhaps as a manifestation of the vampire's lack of a soul).<ref name=EoOc>{{cite book |last=Spence |first=Lewis |title=An Encyclopaedia of Occultism |year=1960 |publisher=University Books |location=New Hyde Parks|oclc=3417655 |isbn=0-486-42613-0}}</ref> This attribute, although not universal (the Greek ''vrykolakas/tympanios'' was capable of both reflection and shadow), was used by Bram Stoker in ''Dracula'' and has remained popular with subsequent authors and filmmakers.<ref name="SU25">Silver & Ursini, p. 25.</ref> Some traditions also hold that a vampire cannot enter a house unless invited by the owner, although after the first invitation they can come and go as they please.<ref name=EoOc/> Though folkloric vampires were believed to be more active at night, they were not generally considered vulnerable to sunlight.<ref name="SU25" />
  
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===== Methods of destruction =====
  
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[[File:"Le Vampire".jpg|thumb|“The Vampire”, lithograph by R. de Moraine (1864).]]
  
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Methods of destroying suspected vampires varied, with [[impalement|staking]] the most commonly cited method, particularly in southern Slavic cultures.<ref name="Barber73">Barber, p. 73.</ref> [[Ash tree|Ash]] was the preferred wood in Russia and the Baltic states,<ref>{{de icon}} {{cite book|last=Alseikaite-Gimbutiene |first=Marija |authorlink=Marija Gimbutas |title=Die Bestattung in Litauen in der vorgeschichtlichen Zeit |year=1946 |location=Tübingen|oclc=1059867}} (thesis).</ref> or [[Common Hawthorn|hawthorn]] in Serbia,<ref name="Vuk59">{{cite journal |last=Vukanović |first=T.P. |year=1959 |title=The Vampire |journal=Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society |volume=38 |pages=111–18}}</ref> with a record of [[oak]] in [[Silesia]].<ref>{{de icon}} {{cite journal|last=Klapper |first=Joseph|title=Die schlesischen Geschichten von den schädingenden Toten |journal=Mitteilungen der schlesischen Gesellschaft für Volkskunde |volume=11 |pages=58–93 |year=1909}}</ref> Potential vampires were most often staked through the heart, though the mouth was targeted in Russia and northern Germany<ref>{{de icon}} {{cite book |last=Löwenstimm |first=A.|title=Aberglaube und Stafrecht |page=99 |year=1897 |publisher=Berlin}}</ref><ref>{{de icon}} {{cite book |last=Bachtold-Staubli |first=H. |title=Handwörterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens |year=1934–35 |publisher=Berlin}}</ref> and the stomach in north-eastern Serbia.<ref>{{de icon}} {{cite journal |last=Filipovic |first=Milenko |year=1962 |title=Die Leichenverbrennung bei den Südslaven |journal=Wiener völkerkundliche Mitteilungen |volume=10 |pages=61–71}}</ref> Piercing the skin of the chest was a way of "deflating" the bloated vampire; this is similar to the act of burying sharp objects, such as sickles, in with the corpse, so that they may penetrate the skin if the body bloats sufficiently while transforming into a revenant.<ref name="Barb158">Barber, p. 158.</ref> [[Decapitation]] was the preferred method in German and western Slavic areas, with the head buried between the feet, behind the [[buttocks]] or away from the body.<ref name="Barber73"/> This act was seen as a way of hastening the departure of the soul, which in some cultures, was said to linger in the corpse. The vampire's head, body, or clothes could also be spiked and pinned to the earth to prevent rising.<ref name="Barb157">Barber, p. 157.</ref> [[Romani people|Romani]] drove steel or iron needles into a corpse's heart and placed bits of steel in the mouth, over the eyes, ears and between the fingers at the time of burial. They also placed hawthorn in the corpse's sock or drove a hawthorn stake through the legs. In a 16th-century burial near [[Venice]], a brick forced into the mouth of a female corpse has been interpreted as a vampire-slaying ritual by the archaeologists who discovered it in 2006.<ref>Reported by Ariel David, "Italy dig unearths female 'vampire' in Venice," 13 March 2009, Associated Press via [[Yahoo! News]], [http://www.webcitation.org/5fFdDvCQQ archived]; also by Reuters, published under the headline "Researchers find remains that support medieval 'vampire'" in ''The Australian'', 13 March 2009, [http://www.webcitation.org/5fFbiY3QS archived] with photo (scroll down).</ref> Further measures included pouring boiling water over the grave or complete incineration of the body. In the Balkans, a vampire could also be killed by being shot or drowned, by repeating the funeral service, by sprinkling [[holy water]] on the body, or by [[exorcism]]. In Romania, garlic could be placed in the mouth, and as recently as the 19th century, the precaution of shooting a bullet through the [[coffin]] was taken. For resistant cases, the body was [[dismember]]ed and the pieces burned, mixed with water, and administered to family members as a cure. In Saxon regions of Germany, a lemon was placed in the mouth of suspected vampires.<ref>Bunson, p. 154.</ref>
  
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In Bulgaria, over 100 skeletons with metal objects, such as plough bits, embedded in the torso have been discovered.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18334106 'Vampire' skeletons found in Bulgaria near Black Sea] ''BBC'', 6 June 2012</ref><ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2012/06/05/skeletons-treated-for-vampirism-found-in-bulgaria/ Skeletons treated for vampirism found in Bulgaria] ''Fox News'', 5 June 2012.</ref>
  
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=== Ancient beliefs ===
  
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[[Image:Lilith (John Collier painting).jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Lilith]]'' (1892), by [[John Collier (artist)|John Collier]]]]
  
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Tales of supernatural beings consuming the blood or flesh of the living have been found in nearly every culture around the world for many centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=McNally|first=Raymond T.|coauthors=Florescu, Radu.|title=In Search of Dracula|year=1994|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|isbn=0-395-65783-0|page=117}}</ref> Today, we would associate these entities with vampires, but in ancient times, the term ''vampire'' did not exist; [[blood drinking]] and similar activities were attributed to [[demon]]s or [[spiritual being|spirits]] who would eat flesh and drink blood; even the [[Devil]] was considered synonymous with the vampire.<ref name="Marigny1">Marigny, pp. 24–25.</ref> Almost every nation has associated blood drinking with some kind of revenant or demon, or in some cases a deity. In [[India]], for example, tales of [[vetala|vetāla]]s, ghoul-like beings that inhabit corpses, have been compiled in the ''[[Baital Pachisi|Baitāl Pacīsī]]''; a prominent story in the ''[[Kathāsaritsāgara]]'' tells of King [[Vikramāditya]] and his nightly quests to capture an elusive one.<ref>{{cite book |last=Burton |first=Sir Richard R. |authorlink=Richard Francis Burton |title=Vikram and The Vampire:Classic Hindu Tales of Adventure, Magic, and Romance |origyear=1870 |year=1893 |publisher=Tylston and Edwards |location=London |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/goth/vav/vav00.htm |accessdate=2007-09-28 |isbn=0-89281-475-6}}</ref> ''[[Pishacha|Piśāca]]'', the returned spirits of evil-doers or those who died insane, also bear vampiric attributes.<ref name="Bun200">Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p. 200.</ref>
  
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The [[Persia]]ns were one of the first civilizations to have tales of blood-drinking demons: creatures attempting to drink blood from men were depicted on excavated [[pottery]] shards.<ref name="Marigny3">Marigny, p. 14.</ref> Ancient [[Babylonia]] and [[Assyria]] had tales of the mythical [[Lilith#Lilitu demons|Lilitu]],<ref name="Hurwitz"/> synonymous with and giving rise to [[Lilith]] ([[Hebrew]] לילית) and her daughters the [[Lilu (mythology)|Lilu]] from [[Jewish demonology|Hebrew demonology]]. Lilitu was considered a demon and was often depicted as subsisting on the blood of babies.<ref name="Hurwitz">Hurwitz, ''Lilith.''<!--Page number??--></ref> And [[Estries]], female shape changing, blood drinking demons, were said to roam the night among the population, seeking victims. According to [[Sefer Hasidim]], Estries were creatures created in the twilight hours before God rested.<ref>{{cite web|last=Shael |first=Rabbi |url=http://shaelsiegel.blogspot.com/2009/06/vampires-einstein-and-jewish-folklore.html |title=Rabbi Shael Speaks...Tachles: Vampires, Einstein and Jewish Folklore |publisher=Shaelsiegel.blogspot.com |date=1 June 2009 |accessdate=2010-12-05}}</ref> An injured Estrie could be healed by eating bread and salt given her by her attacker.
  
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Ancient Greek and [[Roman mythology]] described the [[Empusa]]e,<ref name="GraveEmp">{{cite book |last=Graves |first=Robert |authorlink=Robert Graves|title=[[The Greek Myths]] |origyear=1955 |year=1990 |publisher=Penguin |location=London |isbn=0-14-001026-2 |pages=189–90|chapter=The Empusae}}</ref> the [[Lamia (mythology)|Lamia]],<ref name="Gravlam">Graves, "Lamia", in ''Greek Myths'', pp. 205–206.</ref> and the [[Strix (mythology)|striges]]. Over time the first two terms became general words to describe witches and demons respectively. Empusa was the daughter of the goddess [[Hecate]] and was described as a demonic, [[bronze]]-footed creature. She feasted on blood by transforming into a young woman and seduced men as they slept before drinking their blood.<ref name="GraveEmp"/> The Lamia preyed on young children in their beds at night, sucking their blood, as did the ''gelloudes'' or [[Gello]].<ref name="Gravlam"/> Like the Lamia, the ''striges'' feasted on children, but also preyed on young men. They were described as having the bodies of crows or birds in general, and were later incorporated into Roman mythology as ''strix'', a kind of nocturnal bird that fed on human flesh and blood.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Oliphant |first=Samuel Grant |date=1 January 1913|title=The Story of the Strix: Ancient |journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association |volume=44 |pages=133–49 |doi=10.2307/282549 |issn=00659711 |jstor=282549 }}</ref><!--The Romanian vampire breed named ''[[Strigoï]]'' has no direct relation to the Greek ''striges'', but was derived from the Roman term ''strix'', as is the name of the [[Albania]]n ''[[Shtriga]]'' and the [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] ''[[Strzyga]],'' though myths about these creatures are more similar to their Slavic equivalents.<ref name="Marigny5">Marigny, pp. 15–17.</ref> This is not about Ancient beliefs and doesn't seem to belong here.-->
  
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=== Medieval and later European folklore ===
  
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{{main|Vampire folklore by region}}
  
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[[File:Vampire skeleton of Sozopol in Sofia PD 2012 06.JPG|thumb|The 800-year-old skeleton found in [[Bulgaria]] stabbed through the chest with iron rod.<ref>"[http://news.discovery.com/history/archaeology/vampire-skeletons-120606.htm 'Vampire' Skeletons Found in Bulgaria]". ''Discovery News''. June 6, 2012.</ref>]]
  
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Many of the myths surrounding vampires originated during the [[Middle Ages|medieval period]]. The 12th-century English historians and chroniclers [[Walter Map]] and [[William of Newburgh]] recorded accounts of revenants,<ref name="Cohen"/><ref>{{cite web|author=William of Newburgh |coauthors=Paul Halsall |authorlink=William of Newburgh |title=Book 5, Chapter 22–24 |work=Historia rerum Anglicarum |publisher=Fordham University |year=2000 |accessdate=2007-10-16 |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/williamofnewburgh-five.html}}</ref> though records in English legends of vampiric beings after this date are scant.<ref name="Jones121">Jones, p. 121.</ref> The Old Norse ''[[draugr]]'' is another medieval example of an undead creature with similarities to vampires.<ref>Ármann Jakobsson (2009). "The Fearless Vampire Killers: A Note about the Icelandic ''Draugr'' and Demonic Contamination in ''Grettis Saga''". ''Folklore'' '''120''': 307–316; p. 309.</ref>
  
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Vampires proper originate in folklore widely reported from Eastern Europe in the late 17th and 18th centuries. These tales formed the basis of the vampire legend that later entered Germany and England, where they were subsequently embellished and popularized. One of the earliest recordings of vampire activity came from the region of [[Istria]] in modern [[Croatia]], in 1672.<ref name="Istria">{{cite book |last=Klinger|first=Leslie|title=The New Annotated Dracula |year=2008|chapter=Dracula's Family Tree|page=570 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.|location=New York|isbn=978-0-393-06450-6}}</ref> Local reports cited the local vampire [[Jure Grando]] of the village Khring near [[Tinjan]] as the cause of panic among the villagers.<ref name="Grando">{{cite book |last=Pile|first=Steve|title=Real cities: modernity, space and the phantasmagorias of city life|year=2005|chapter=Dracula's Family Tree|page=570 |publisher=Sage Publications Ltd|location=London|isbn=0-7619-7041-X}}</ref> A former peasant, Jure died in 1656; however, local villagers claimed he returned from the dead and began drinking blood from the people and sexually harassing his widow. The village leader ordered a stake to be driven through his heart, but when the method failed to kill him, he was subsequently beheaded with better results.<ref name="Giure">{{cite book |last=Caron|first=Richard|title=Ésotérisme, gnoses & imaginaire symbolique: mélanges offerts à Antoine Faivre|year=2001|chapter=Dracula's Family Tree|page=598 |publisher=Peteers, Bondgenotenlaan 153|location=Belgium|isbn=90-429-0955-2}}</ref> That was the first case in history that a real person had been described as a vampire.
  
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During the 18th century, there was a frenzy of vampire sightings in Eastern Europe, with frequent stakings and grave diggings to identify and kill the potential revenants; even government officials engaged in the hunting and staking of vampires.<ref name="Barb5to9"/> Despite being called the [[Age of Enlightenment]], during which most folkloric legends were quelled, the belief in vampires increased dramatically, resulting in a mass hysteria throughout most of Europe.<ref name="Cohen"/> The panic began with an outbreak of alleged vampire attacks in [[East Prussia]] in 1721 and in the [[Habsburg Monarchy]] from 1725 to 1734, which spread to other localities. Two famous vampire cases, the first to be officially recorded, involved the corpses of [[Peter Plogojowitz]] and Arnold Paole from Serbia. Plogojowitz was reported to have died at the age of 62, but allegedly returned after his death asking his son for food. When the son refused, he was found dead the following day. Plogojowitz supposedly returned and attacked some neighbours who died from loss of blood.<ref name="Barb5to9">Barber, pp. 5–9.</ref> In the second case, Paole, an ex-soldier turned farmer who allegedly was attacked by a vampire years before, died while [[haying]]. After his death, people began to die in the surrounding area and it was widely believed that Paole had returned to prey on the neighbours.<ref name="Barb1521"/> Another famous Serbian legend involving vampires concentrates around a certain [[Sava Savanović]] living in a watermill and killing and drinking blood from millers. The character was later used in a story written by [[Serb]]ian writer [[Milovan Glišić]] and in the Yugoslav 1973 horror film ''[[Leptirica]]'' inspired by the story.
  
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The two incidents were well-documented: government officials examined the bodies, wrote case reports, and published books throughout Europe.<ref name="Barb1521">Barber, pp. 15–21.</ref> The hysteria, commonly referred to as the "18th-Century Vampire Controversy", raged for a generation. The problem was exacerbated by rural epidemics of so-claimed vampire attacks, undoubtedly caused by the higher amount of superstition that was present in village communities, with locals digging up bodies and in some cases, staking them. Although many scholars reported during this period that vampires did not exist, and attributed reports to premature burial or [[rabies]], [[superstition|superstitious]] belief increased. [[Antoine Augustine Calmet|Dom Augustine Calmet]], a well-respected French [[theologian]] and scholar, put together a comprehensive treatise in 1746, which was ambiguous concerning the existence of vampires. Calmet amassed reports of vampire incidents; numerous readers, including both a critical [[Voltaire]] and supportive [[demonologist]]s, interpreted the treatise as claiming that vampires existed.<ref name="Hoyt84"/> In his ''[[Dictionnaire philosophique|Philosophical Dictionary]],'' Voltaire wrote:<ref>{{cite book|title=Philosophical Dictionary |author=Voltaire |year=1984 |origyear=1764 |publisher=Penguin|isbn=0-14-044257-X}}</ref>
  
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{{quote|These vampires were corpses, who went out of their graves at night to suck the blood of the living, either at their throats or stomachs, after which they returned to their cemeteries. The persons so sucked waned, grew pale, and fell into [[tuberculosis|consumption]]; while the sucking corpses grew fat, got rosy, and enjoyed an excellent appetite. It was in [[Poland]], Hungary, Silesia, [[Moravia]], Austria, and [[Alsace-Lorraine|Lorraine]], that the dead made this good cheer.}}
  
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The controversy only ceased when Empress [[Maria Theresa of Austria]] sent her personal physician, [[Gerard van Swieten]], to investigate the claims of vampiric entities. He concluded that vampires did not exist and the Empress passed laws prohibiting the opening of graves and desecration of bodies, sounding the end of the vampire epidemics. Despite this condemnation, the vampire lived on in artistic works and in local superstition.<ref name="Hoyt84">Hoyt, pp. 101–06</ref>
  
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=== Non-European beliefs ===
  
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==== Africa ====
  
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Various regions of Africa have folkloric tales of beings with vampiric abilities: in West Africa the [[The Ashanti|Ashanti]] people tell of the iron-toothed and tree-dwelling ''[[asanbosam]]'',<ref name="Buns11">Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p. 11.</ref> and the [[Ewe people]] of the ''[[adze (folklore)|adze]],'' which can take the form of a [[firefly]] and hunts children.<ref name="Buns2">Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p. 2.</ref> The eastern Cape region has the ''[[impundulu]],'' which can take the form of a large taloned bird and can summon thunder and lightning, and the [[Betsileo]] people of [[Madagascar]] tell of the ''ramanga'', an outlaw or living vampire who drinks the blood and eats the nail clippings of nobles.<ref name="Bunson, p. 219">Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p. 219.</ref>
  
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==== The Americas ====
  
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The ''[[Loogaroo]]'' is an example of how a vampire belief can result from a combination of beliefs, here a mixture of French and African Vodu or [[West African Vodun|voodoo]]. The term ''Loogaroo'' possibly comes from the French ''[[loup-garou]]'' (meaning "werewolf") and is common in the [[culture of Mauritius]]. However, the stories of the ''Loogaroo'' are widespread through the [[Caribbean Islands]] and [[Louisiana]] in the United States.<ref name="Buns1623">Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', pp. 162–63.</ref> Similar female monsters are the ''[[Soucouyant]]'' of [[Trinidad]], and the ''[[Tunda]]'' and ''[[Patasola]]'' of [[Colombia]]n folklore, while the [[Mapuche]] of southern [[Chile]] have the bloodsucking snake known as the ''[[Peuchen]]''.<ref>{{es icon}} {{cite book|author=Martinez Vilches, Oscar|title=Chiloe Misterioso: Turismo, Mitologia Chilota, leyendas |year=1992 |page=179 |publisher=Ediciones de la Voz de Chiloe |location=Chile |oclc=33852127}}</ref> ''[[Aloe vera]]'' hung backwards behind or near a door was thought to ward off vampiric beings in South American superstition.<ref name=Jaramillo/> Aztec mythology described tales of the [[Cihuateteo]], skeletal-faced spirits of those who died in childbirth who stole children and entered into sexual liaisons with the living, driving them mad.<ref name="Strange & Amazing"/>
  
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During the late 18th and 19th centuries the belief in vampires was [[New England vampire panic|widespread in parts of New England]], particularly in [[Rhode Island]] and Eastern [[Connecticut]]. There are many documented cases of families disinterring loved ones and removing their hearts in the belief that the deceased was a vampire who was responsible for sickness and death in the family, although the term "vampire" was never actually used to describe the deceased. The deadly disease [[tuberculosis]], or "consumption" as it was known at the time, was believed to be caused by nightly visitations on the part of a dead family member who had died of consumption themselves.<ref name=sledzik>{{cite journal |last=Sledzik |first=Paul S. |coauthors=Nicholas Bellantoni |year=1994 |title=Bioarcheological and biocultural evidence for the New England vampire folk belief |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=269–274 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330940210 |url=http://www.ceev.net/biocultural.pdf |format=PDF|pmid=8085617}}</ref> The most famous, and most recently recorded, case of suspected vampirism is that of nineteen-year-old [[Mercy Brown vampire incident|Mercy Brown]], who died in [[Exeter, Rhode Island]] in 1892. Her father, assisted by the family physician, removed her from her tomb two months after her death, cut out her heart and burned it to ashes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://seacoastnh.com/Places-&-Events/The-Grave-Site/Real-Vampires-in-New-England?/ |title=Interview with a REAL Vampire Stalker |publisher=SeacoastNH.com |accessdate=2006-06-14}}</ref>
  
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==== Asia ====
  
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Rooted in older folklore, the modern belief in vampires spread throughout Asia with tales of ghoulish entities from the mainland, to vampiric beings from the islands of Southeast Asia.
  
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South Asia also developed other vampiric legends. The ''[[Bhoot (ghost)|Bhūta]]'' or ''Prét'' is the soul of a man who died an untimely death. It wanders around animating dead bodies at night, attacking the living much like a [[ghoul]].<ref>Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', pp. 23–24.</ref> In northern India, there is the ''BrahmarākŞhasa'', a vampire-like creature with a head encircled by intestines and a skull from which it drank blood. The figure of the [[Vetala]] who appears in South Asian legend and story may sometimes be rendered as "Vampire" (see the section on "Ancient Beliefs" above).
  
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Although vampires have appeared in [[Japanese cinema]] since the late 1950s, the folklore behind it is western in origin.<ref name=Buns378>Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', pp. 137–38.</ref> However, the [[Nukekubi]] is a being whose head and neck detach from its body to fly about seeking human prey at night.<ref>{{cite book |title=Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things |last=Hearn |first=Lafcadio |authorlink=Lafcadio Hearn |year=1903 |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin and Company |location=Boston |isbn=0-585-15043-5}}</ref> There's also the Kitsune who are spiritual vampires that need life force to survive and use magic. As such, they acquire it from making love with humans.
  
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[[File:Manananggal of Philippine Mythology Commons.jpg|thumb|The ''[[manananggal]]'' of Philippine mythology]]
  
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Legends of female vampire-like beings who can detach parts of their upper body also occur in the [[Philippines]], Malaysia and [[Indonesia]]. There are two main vampire-like creatures in the [[Philippines]]: the [[Tagalog people|Tagalog]] ''[[Mandurugo]]'' ("blood-sucker") and the [[Visayan]] ''[[Manananggal]]'' ("self-segmenter"). The mandurugo is a variety of the [[aswang]] that takes the form of an attractive girl by day, and develops wings and a long, hollow, thread-like tongue by night. The tongue is used to suck up blood from a sleeping victim. The ''manananggal'' is described as being an older, beautiful woman capable of severing its upper torso in order to fly into the night with huge bat-like wings and prey on unsuspecting, sleeping pregnant women in their homes. They use an elongated proboscis-like tongue to suck [[fetus]]es from these pregnant women. They also prefer to eat entrails (specifically the [[heart]] and the [[liver]]) and the phlegm of sick people.<ref name="ramos">{{cite book |last=Ramos |first=Maximo D. |title=Creatures of Philippine Lower Mythology |origyear=1971 |year=1990 |publisher=Phoenix Publishing |location=Quezon |isbn=971-06-0691-3}}</ref>
  
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The [[Malaysia]]n ''[[Penanggalan]]'' may be either a beautiful old or young woman who obtained her beauty through the active use of [[black magic]] or other unnatural means, and is most commonly described in local folklore to be dark or demonic in nature. She is able to detach her fanged head which flies around in the night looking for blood, typically from pregnant women.<ref>Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p. 197.</ref> Malaysians would hang ''jeruju'' (thistles) around the doors and windows of houses, hoping the ''Penanggalan'' would not enter for fear of catching its intestines on the thorns.<ref>Hoyt, p. 34.</ref> The [[Leyak]] is a similar being from [[Balinese mythology|Balinese folklore]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Witchcraft, Grief, and the Ambivalence of Emotions |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=26 |issue=3 |year=1999 |pages=711–737 |doi=10.1525/ae.1999.26.3.711 |first= Michele|last =Stephen }}</ref> A ''Kuntilanak'' or ''Matianak'' in Indonesia,<ref>Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p. 208.</ref> or ''[[Pontianak (folklore)|Pontianak]]'' or ''Langsuir'' in Malaysia,<ref>Bunson, ''Vampire Encyclopedia'', p. 150.</ref> is a woman who died during childbirth and became undead, seeking revenge and terrorizing villages. She appeared as an attractive woman with long black hair that covered a hole in the back of her neck, with which she sucked the blood of children. Filling the hole with her hair would drive her off. Corpses had their mouths filled with glass beads, eggs under each armpit, and needles in their palms to prevent them from becoming ''langsuir.'' This description would also fit the [[Sundel bolong|Sundel Bolong]]s.<ref>Hoyt, p. 35.</ref>
  
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[[Jiangshi]], sometimes called "Chinese vampires" by Westerners, are reanimated corpses that hop around, killing living creatures to absorb life essence ([[qi|qì]]) from their victims. They are said to be created when a person's soul (魄 [[Hun and po|''pò'']]) fails to leave the deceased's body.<ref>{{cite book |last=Suckling |first=Nigel |title=Vampires |year=2006 |publisher=Facts, Figures & Fun |location=London |isbn=1-904332-48-X |page=31}}</ref> However, some have disputed the comparison of ''jiang shi'' with vampires, as ''jiang shi'' are usually mindless creatures with no independent thought.<ref>{{cite book |last=劉 |first=天賜 |title=僵屍與吸血鬼 |year=2008 |publisher=Joint Publishing (H.K.) |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-962-04-2735-0 |page=196}}</ref> One unusual feature of this monster is its greenish-white furry skin, perhaps derived from fungus or [[mold|mould]] growing on corpses.<ref>{{cite book |last=de Groot |first=J.J.M. |title=The Religious System of China |year=1910 |work=E.J. Brill |oclc=7022203}}<!--many recent editions for this--></ref> Jiangshi legends have inspired a [[Jiangshi fiction|genre of jiangshi films]] and literature in Hong Kong and East Asia. Films like ''[[Encounters of the Spooky Kind]]'' and ''[[Mr. Vampire]]'' were released during the jiangshi cinematic boom of the 1980s and 1990s.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lam|first=Stephanie|year=2009|title=Hop on Pop: Jiangshi Films in a Transnational Context|journal=CineAction|issue=78|pages=46–51}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hudson|first=Dave|title=Draculas, Vampires, and Other Undead Forms|year=2009|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-6923-3|page=215}}</ref>
  
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=== Modern beliefs ===
  
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In modern fiction, the vampire tends to be depicted as a suave, charismatic [[villain]].<ref name="Barb2"/> Despite the general disbelief in vampiric entities, occasional sightings of vampires are reported. Indeed, vampire hunting societies still exist, although they are largely formed for social reasons.<ref name="Cohen"/> Allegations of vampire attacks swept through the African country of [[Malawi]] during late 2002 and early 2003, with mobs stoning one individual to death and attacking at least four others, including Governor [[Eric Chiwaya]], based on the belief that the government was colluding with vampires.<ref>{{cite news |first=Raphael |last=Tenthani |title='Vampires' strike Malawi villages |publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2602461.stm |date=23 December 2002 |accessdate=2007-12-29}}</ref>
  
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In early 1970 local press spread rumours that a vampire haunted [[Highgate Cemetery]] in London. Amateur vampire hunters flocked in large numbers to the cemetery. Several books have been written about the case, notably by Sean Manchester, a local man who was among the first to suggest the existence of the "[[Highgate Vampire]]" and who later claimed to have [[exorcise]]d and destroyed a whole nest of vampires in the area.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Highgate Vampire: The Infernal World of the Undead Unearthed at London's Highgate Cemetery and Environs |last=Manchester |first=Sean |year=1991 |location= London |publisher=Gothic Press |isbn=1-872486-01-0}}</ref> In January 2005, rumours circulated that an attacker had bitten a number of people in [[Birmingham]], England, fuelling concerns about a vampire roaming the streets. However, local police stated that no such crime had been reported and that the case appears to be an [[urban legend]].<ref name=guardian1>{{cite news |title=Reality Bites |work=The Guardian |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,3604,1392607,00.html |date=18 January 2005 |accessdate=2007-12-29 | location=London | first=Stuart | last=Jeffries}}</ref>
  
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[[File:VampireE3.jpg|thumb|170px|The female vampire costume]]
  
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In 2006, a physics professor at the [[University of Central Florida]] wrote a paper arguing that it is mathematically impossible for vampires to exist, based on [[geometric progression]]. According to the paper, if the first vampire had appeared on 1 January 1600, and it fed once a month (which is less often than what is depicted in films and folklore), and every victim turned into a vampire, then within two and a half years the entire human population of the time would have become vampires.<ref>[http://www.world-science.net/othernews/061024_vampire.htm Math vs. vampires: vampires lose], world-science.net, 25 October 2006.</ref> The paper made no attempt to address the credibility of the assumption that every vampire victim would turn into a vampire.
  
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In one of the more notable cases of vampiric entities in the modern age, the ''[[chupacabra]]'' ("goat-sucker") of [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Mexico]] is said to be a creature that feeds upon the flesh or drinks the blood of [[domesticated animal]]s, leading some to consider it a kind of vampire. The "chupacabra hysteria" was frequently associated with deep economic and political crises, particularly during the mid-1990s.<ref name="trail">{{cite web | author=Stephen Wagner| url=http://paranormal.about.com/library/weekly/aa051898.htm| title=On the trail of the Chupacabras|accessdate=2007-10-05}}</ref>
  
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In Europe, where much of the vampire folklore originates, the vampire is usually considered a fictitious being, although many communities may have embraced the revenant for economic purposes. In some cases, especially in small localities, vampire superstition is still rampant and sightings or claims of vampire attacks occur frequently. In [[Romania]] during February 2004, several relatives of Toma Petre feared that he had become a vampire. They dug up his corpse, tore out his heart, burned it, and mixed the ashes with water in order to drink it.<ref>{{cite news|author=Taylor T|date=28 October 2007|title=The real vampire slayers |work=The Independent |url=http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article3096920.ece |accessdate=2007-12-14 | location=London}}</ref>
  
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Vampirism and the [[Vampire lifestyle]] also represent a relevant part of modern day's [[Occultistic|occultist]] movements. The mythos of the vampire, his [[Magick (Aleister Crowley)|magickal]] qualities, allure, and predatory archetype express a strong symbolism that can be used in ritual, energy work, and magick, and can even be adopted as a spiritual system.<ref>Hume, L., & Kathleen Mcphillips, K. (Eds.). (2006). Popular spiritualities: The politics of contemporary enchantment. Burlington, Ashgate Publishing.</ref> The vampire has been part of the occult society in Europe for centuries and has spread into the American sub-culture as well for more than a decade, being strongly influenced by and mixed with the [[Goth subculture|neo gothic]] aesthetics.<ref>{{Cite journal | author = Young, T. H. | year = 1999 | title = Dancing on Bela Lugosi's grave: The politics and aesthetics of Gothic club dancing|jstor=1290878| journal = Dance Research | volume = 17 | issue = 1| pages = 75–97 }}</ref>
  
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==== Collective noun ====
  
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'[[Coven]]' has been used as a collective noun for vampires, possibly based on the [[Wicca]]n usage. An alternative collective noun is a 'house' of vampires.<ref>{{cite book|title=Vampires in Their Own Words: An Anthology of Vampire Voices|first=Michelle|last=Belanger|page=118|publisher=Llewellyn Worldwide|location=Woodbury MN|isbn=978-0-7387-1220-8|oclc=245535068|year=2007}}</ref> David Malki, author of [[Wondermark]], suggests in Wondermark No. 566 the use of the collective noun 'basement', as in "A basement of vampires."<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wondermark.com/566/ | title = Wondermark » Archive » #566; Supernatural Collective Nouns. | first = David | last = Malki | date = 30 October 2009 | at = UNDEAD CLASS | quote = A basement of vampires.}}</ref>
  
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== Origins of vampire beliefs ==
  
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[[Image:Moraine le vampire.jpg|thumb|''Le Vampire'', lithograph by R. de Moraine in [[Paul Féval, père|Féval]] (1851–1852)]]
  
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Commentators have offered many theories for the origins of vampire beliefs, trying to explain the superstition – and sometimes mass hysteria – caused by vampires. Everything ranging from [[premature burial]] to the early ignorance of the body's [[decomposition]] cycle after death has been cited as the cause for the belief in vampires.
  
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=== Slavic spiritualism ===
  
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Although many cultures possess revenant superstitions comparable to the Eastern European vampire, the [[Slavic mythology|Slavic]] vampire is the revenant superstition that pervades popular culture's concept of vampires. The roots of vampire belief in Slavic culture largely originate in the spiritual beliefs and practices of pre-Christianized Slavic peoples and in their understanding of life after death. Despite a lack of [[Proto-Slavic language|pre-Christian Slavic writings]] describing the details of the "Old Religion", Slavic peoples sustained many [[pagan]] spiritual beliefs and rituals even after the official Christianization of their societies. Examples of such beliefs and practices include [[ancestor worship]], [[Household deity|household spirits]], and beliefs about the [[Soul (spirit)|soul]] after death. The origins of vampire beliefs in Slavic regions can be traced to the complex structure of Slavic spiritualism.
  
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Demons and spirits served important functions in [[pre-industrial]] Slavic societies and were considered to be very interactive in the lives and domains of humans. Some spirits were benevolent and could be helpful in human tasks, others were harmful and often destructive. Examples of such spirits are [[Domovoi]], [[Rusalka]], [[Veela|Vila]], [[Kikimora]], [[Poludnitsa]], and [[Vodyanoy]]. These spirits were also considered to be derived from ancestors or certain deceased humans. Such spirits could appear at will in various forms including that of different animals or human form. Some of these spirits could also participate in malevolent activity to harm humans, such as drowning humans, obstructing the harvest, or sucking the blood of livestock and sometimes humans. Hence, the [[Slavs]] were obliged to appease these spirits to prevent the spirits from their potential for erratic and destructive behaviour.<ref name="Perk23">Perkowski, "Vampires of the Slavs," p. 23.</ref>
  
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Common Slavic belief indicates a stark distinction between soul and body. The soul is not considered to be perishable. The Slavs believed that upon death the soul would go out of the body and wander about its neighbourhood and workplace for 40 days before moving on to an eternal afterlife.<ref name="Perk23"/> Thus pagan Slavs considered it necessary to leave a window or door open in the house for the soul to pass through at its leisure. During this time the soul was believed to have the capability of re-entering the corpse of the deceased. Much like the spirits mentioned earlier, the passing soul could either bless or wreak havoc on its family and neighbours during its 40 days of passing. Upon an individual's death, much stress was placed on proper [[burial rites]] to ensure the soul's purity and peace as it separated from the body. The death of an unbaptized child, a violent or an untimely death, or the death of a grievous sinner (such as a sorcerer or murderer) were all grounds for a soul to become unclean after death. A soul could also be made unclean if its body were not given a proper burial. Alternatively, a body not given a proper burial could be susceptible to possession by other unclean souls and spirits. Slavs feared unclean souls because of their potential for taking vengeance.<ref name="Perk21-25">Perkowski, "Vampires of the Slavs," pp. 21–25.</ref>
  
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From these deep beliefs pertaining to death and the soul derives the invention of the Slavic concept of ''vampir''. A vampire is the manifestation of an [[unclean spirit]] possessing a decomposing body. This undead creature needs the blood of the living to sustain its body's existence and is considered to be vengeful and jealous towards the living.<ref name="Barb197">Barber, p. 197.</ref> Although this concept of vampire exists in slightly different forms throughout [[Slavic countries]] and some of their non-Slavic neighbours, it is possible to trace the development of vampire belief to Slavic spiritualism preceding Christianity in Slavic regions.
  
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=== Pathology ===
  
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==== Decomposition ====
  
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Paul Barber in his book ''Vampires, Burial and Death'' has described that belief in vampires resulted from people of [[pre-industrial society|pre-industrial societies]] attempting to explain the natural, but to them inexplicable, process of death and decomposition.<ref name="Barb1to4">Barber, pp. 1–4.</ref>
  
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People sometimes suspected vampirism when a cadaver did not look as they thought a normal corpse should when disinterred. However, rates of decomposition vary depending on temperature and soil composition, and many of the signs are little known. This has led vampire hunters to mistakenly conclude that a dead body had not decomposed at all, or, ironically, to interpret signs of decomposition as signs of continued life.<ref>{{cite web |last=Barber |first=Paul |title=Staking claims: the vampires of folklore and fiction|work=Skeptical Inquirer |date=1 March 1996 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_n2_v20/ai_18158446/pg_1 |accessdate=2006-04-30|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071217235556/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_n2_v20/ai_18158446/pg_1 |archivedate = 17 December 2007|deadurl=yes}}</ref> Corpses swell as gases from decomposition accumulate in the torso and the increased pressure forces blood to ooze from the nose and mouth. This causes the body to look "plump," "well-fed," and "ruddy"—changes that are all the more striking if the person was pale or thin in life. In the [[Arnold Paole|Arnold Paole case]], an old woman's exhumed corpse was judged by her neighbours to look more plump and healthy than she had ever looked in life.<ref name="Barb117">Barber, p. 117.</ref> The exuding blood gave the impression that the corpse had recently been engaging in vampiric activity.<ref name="Barb1145"/> Darkening of the skin is also caused by decomposition.<ref name="Barb105">Barber, p. 105.</ref> The staking of a swollen, decomposing body could cause the body to bleed and force the accumulated gases to escape the body. This could produce a groan-like sound when the gases moved past the vocal cords, or a sound reminiscent of [[flatulence]] when they passed through the anus. The official reporting on the [[Peter Plogojowitz]] case speaks of "other wild signs which I pass by out of high respect".<ref name="Barb119">Barber, p. 119.</ref>
  
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After death, the skin and gums lose fluids and contract, exposing the roots of the hair, nails, and teeth, even teeth that were concealed in the jaw. This can produce the illusion that the hair, nails, and teeth have grown. At a certain stage, the nails fall off and the skin peels away, as reported in the Plogojowitz case—the [[dermis]] and [[nail (anatomy)#Parts of the nail|nail beds]] emerging underneath were interpreted as "new skin" and "new nails".<ref name="Barb119"/>
  
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==== Premature burial ====
  
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It has also been hypothesized that vampire legends were influenced by individuals being [[buried alive]] because of shortcomings in the medical knowledge of the time. In some cases in which people reported sounds emanating from a specific coffin, it was later dug up and fingernail marks were discovered on the inside from the victim trying to escape. In other cases the person would hit their heads, noses or faces and it would appear that they had been "feeding."<ref name="Marigny2">Marigny, pp. 48–49.</ref> A problem with this theory is the question of how people presumably buried alive managed to stay alive for any extended period without food, water or fresh air. An alternate explanation for noise is the bubbling of escaping gases from natural decomposition of bodies.<ref name="Barber128">Barber, p. 128.</ref> Another likely cause of disordered tombs is [[grave robbing]].<ref name="Barber13738">Barber, pp. 137–38.</ref>
  
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==== Contagion ====
  
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Folkloric vampirism has been associated with clusters of deaths from unidentifiable or mysterious illnesses, usually within the same family or the same small community.<ref name=sledzik/> The epidemic allusion is obvious in the classical cases of [[Peter Plogojowitz]] and Arnold Paole, and even more so in the case of Mercy Brown and in the vampire beliefs of New England generally, where a specific disease, tuberculosis, was associated with outbreaks of vampirism. As with the pneumonic form of [[bubonic plague]], it was associated with breakdown of lung tissue which would cause blood to appear at the lips.<ref>Barber, p. 115.</ref>
  
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==== Porphyria ====
  
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In 1985 biochemist [[David Dolphin]] proposed a link between the rare blood disorder [[porphyria]] and vampire folklore. Noting that the condition is treated by intravenous [[Heme|haem]], he suggested that the consumption of large amounts of blood may result in haem being transported somehow across the stomach wall and into the bloodstream. Thus vampires were merely sufferers of porphyria seeking to replace haem and alleviate their symptoms.<ref>Dolphin D (1985) "Werewolves and Vampires," annual meeting of American Association for the Advancement of Science.<!--Can't the details to a paper reference be dug up properly? Or at least to a good secondary reference mentioning the link? Adams might be our only possibility...--></ref> The theory has been rebuffed medically as suggestions that porphyria sufferers crave the haem in human blood, or that the consumption of blood might ease the symptoms of porphyria, are based on a misunderstanding of the disease. Furthermore, Dolphin was noted to have confused fictional (bloodsucking) vampires with those of folklore, many of whom were not noted to drink blood.<ref>Barber, p. 100.</ref> Similarly, a parallel is made between sensitivity to sunlight by sufferers, yet this was associated with fictional and not folkloric vampires. In any case, Dolphin did not go on to publish his work more widely.<ref>{{cite web|last=Adams |first=Cecil |title=Did vampires suffer from the disease porphyria—or not? |work=The Straight Dope|publisher=Chicago Reader|date=7 May 1999 |accessdate=2007-12-25 |url=http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a990507.html}}</ref> Despite being dismissed by experts, the link gained media attention<ref>{{cite web |last=Pierach|first=Claus A. |title=Vampire Label Unfair To Porphyria Sufferers |work=Opinion |date=13 June 1985 |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C04E4D71239F930A25755C0A963948260 |accessdate=2007-12-25}}</ref> and entered popular modern folklore.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kujtan |first=Peter W. |title=Porphyria: The Vampire Disease|publisher=The Mississauga News online |date=29 October 2005 |url =http://www.bydewey.com/drkporphyria.html |accessdate=2009-11-09}}</ref>
  
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==== Rabies ====
  
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[[Rabies]] has been linked with vampire folklore. Dr Juan Gómez-Alonso, a neurologist at Xeral Hospital in [[Vigo]], Spain, examined this possibility in a report in ''[[Neurology (journal)|Neurology]]''. The susceptibility to garlic and light could be due to hypersensitivity, which is a symptom of rabies. The disease can also affect portions of the brain that could lead to disturbance of normal sleep patterns (thus becoming nocturnal) and [[hypersexuality]]. Legend once said a man was not rabid if he could look at his own reflection (an allusion to the legend that vampires have no reflection). Wolves and bats, which are often associated with vampires, can be carriers of rabies. The disease can also lead to a drive to bite others and to a bloody frothing at the mouth.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gómez-Alonso |first= Juan |year=1998 |title=Rabies: a possible explanation for the vampire legend |journal=Neurology |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=856–9 |pmid=9748039 |doi=10.1212/WNL.51.3.856}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=24 September 1998 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/178623.stm |title=Rabies-The Vampire's Kiss |publisher=BBC news |accessdate=2007-03-18}}</ref>
  
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=== Psychodynamic understanding ===
  
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In his 1931 treatise ''On the Nightmare'', [[Welsh people|Welsh]] [[psychoanalysis|psychoanalyst]] [[Ernest Jones]] asserted that vampires are symbolic of several unconscious drives and [[defence mechanism]]s. Emotions such as love, guilt, and hate fuel the idea of the return of the dead to the grave. Desiring a reunion with loved ones, mourners may [[Psychological projection|project]] the idea that the recently dead must in return yearn the same. From this arises the belief that folkloric vampires and revenants visit relatives, particularly their spouses, first.<ref>Jones, pp. 100–102.</ref> In cases where there was unconscious guilt associated with the relationship, however, the wish for reunion may be subverted by anxiety. This may lead to [[psychological repression|repression]], which [[Sigmund Freud]] had linked with the development of morbid dread.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jones |first=Ernest |year=1911 |title=The Pathology of Morbid Anxiety |journal=Journal of Abnormal Psychology |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=81–106 |doi=10.1037/h0074306 |pmid=17296997 }}</ref> Jones surmised in this case the original wish of a (sexual) reunion may be drastically changed: desire is replaced by fear; love is replaced by sadism, and the object or loved one is replaced by an unknown entity. The sexual aspect may or may not be present.<ref>Jones, p. 106.</ref> Some modern critics have proposed a simpler theory: People identify with immortal vampires because, by so doing, they overcome, or at least temporarily escape from, their fear of dying.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=KXOUiGfJ8_oC&pg=PT205&lpg=PP1&ie=ISO-8859-1&output=html McMahon, ''Twilight of an Idol'', p. 193].</ref>
  
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The innate sexuality of bloodsucking can be seen in its intrinsic connection with [[cannibalism]] and folkloric one with [[incubus (demon)|incubus]]-like behaviour. Many legends report various beings draining other fluids from victims, an unconscious association with [[semen]] being obvious. Finally Jones notes that when more normal aspects of sexuality are repressed, regressed forms may be expressed, in particular [[Sadism and masochism as medical terms#Freud and psychoanalysis|sadism]]; he felt that [[Psychosexual development#Oral phase|oral sadism]] is integral in vampiric behaviour.<ref>Jones, "The Vampire", pp. 116–20.</ref>
  
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=== Political interpretation ===
  
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The reinvention of the vampire myth in the modern era is not without political overtones.<ref>{{cite book |last=Glover |first=David |year=1996 |title=Vampires, Mummies, and Liberals: Bram Stoker and the Politics of Popular Fiction |publisher=Duke University Press |place=Durham, NC. |isbn=0-8223-1798-2 }}</ref> The aristocratic Count Dracula, alone in his castle apart from a few demented retainers, appearing only at night to feed on his peasantry, is symbolic of the parasitic ''[[Ancien regime]]''. In his entry for "Vampires" in the Dictionnaire philosophique (1764), Voltaire notices how the end of the 18th century coincided with the decline of the folkloric belief in the existence of vampires but that now "there were stock-jobbers, brokers, and men of business, who sucked the blood of the people in broad daylight; but they were not dead, though corrupted. These true suckers lived not in cemeteries, but in very agreeable palaces".<ref>[http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1660&chapter=202474&layout=html&Itemid=27 VAMPIRES. – Voltaire, The Works of Voltaire, Vol. VII (Philosophical Dictionary Part 5) (1764)]</ref> Marx similarly famously defined capital as "dead labour which, vampire-like, lives only by sucking living labour, and lives the more, the more labour it sucks".<ref>An extensive discussion of the diffenrent uses of the vampire metaphor in Marx's writings can be found in Policante, A. [http://clogic.eserver.org/2010/Policante.pdf "Vampires of Capital: Gothic Reflections between horror and hope"] in [http://clogic.eserver.org/2010/2010.html Cultural Logic], 2010.</ref> In Das Kapital Marx repeatedly refers to capital as a vampire, because of its monstrous metabolism: according to the German philosopher and revolutionary, in fact, capital is capable at once to suck living labour out of the workers and to transform them in an integral part of itself (variable capital).<ref>Policante, A. [http://clogic.eserver.org/2010/Policante.pdf "Vampires of Capital: Gothic Reflections between horror and hope"] in [http://clogic.eserver.org/2010/2010.html Cultural Logic, 2010].</ref> [[Werner Herzog]], in his ''[[Nosferatu the Vampyre]]'', gives this political interpretation an extra ironic twist when protagonist [[Jonathon Harker]], a middle-class solicitor, becomes the next vampire; in this way the capitalist [[bourgeois]] becomes the next parasitic class.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brass |first=Tom |journal=Dialectical Anthropology |volume=25 |pages=205–237 |year=2000 |title=Nymphs, Shepherds, and Vampires: The Agrarian Myth on Film |doi=10.1023/A:1011615201664 |issue=3/4}}</ref>
  
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=== Psychopathology ===
  
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A number of murderers have performed seemingly vampiric rituals upon their victims. serial killers [[Peter Kürten]] and [[Richard Trenton Chase]] were both called "vampires" in the [[Tabloid (newspaper format)|tabloid]]s after they were discovered drinking the blood of the people they murdered. Similarly, in 1932, an unsolved murder case in [[Stockholm]], Sweden was nicknamed the "[[Atlas Vampire|Vampire murder]]", because of the circumstances of the victim's death.<ref name=Stig1>{{sv icon}} {{cite book |last=Linnell |first=Stig |title=Stockholms spökhus och andra ruskiga ställen |origyear=1968 |year=1993 |publisher=Raben Prisma |isbn=91-518-2738-7}}</ref> The late-16th-century Hungarian countess and mass murderer [[Elizabeth Báthory]] became particularly infamous in later centuries' works, which depicted her bathing in her victims' blood in order to retain beauty or youth.<ref name="Hoyt6871">Hoyt, pp. 68–71.</ref>
  
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=== Modern vampire subcultures ===
  
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Vampire lifestyle is a term for a contemporary subculture of people, largely within the [[Goth subculture]], who consume the blood of others as a pastime; drawing from the rich recent history of popular culture related to cult symbolism, [[horror film]]s, the fiction of [[Anne Rice]], and the styles of Victorian England.<ref>Skal(1993) pp. 342–43.</ref> Active vampirism within the vampire subculture includes both blood-related vampirism, commonly referred to as ''sanguine vampirism'', and ''[[Psychic vampire|psychic vampirism]]'', or supposed feeding from [[prana|pranic]] energy.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jon|first=A. Asbjorn|year=2002|title=The Psychic Vampire and Vampyre Subculture|journal=Australian Folklore|issue=12|pages=143–148|issn=0819-0852}}<!-- ISBN 1-86389-831-X--></ref>
  
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=== Vampire bats ===
  
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{{main|Vampire bat}}
  
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[[Image:Desmodus.jpg|thumb|A [[vampire bat]] in Peru]]
  
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Although many cultures have stories about them, [[vampire bat]]s have only recently become an integral part of the traditional vampire lore. Indeed, vampire bats were only integrated into vampire folklore when they were discovered on the South American mainland in the 16th century.<ref name="Cohen2">Cohen, pp. 95–96.</ref> Although there are no vampire bats in Europe, Bats and [[owl]]s have long been associated with the supernatural and omens, although mainly because of their nocturnal habits,<ref name="Cohen2"/><ref name="Cooper92">{{cite book |last=Cooper |first=J.C. |title=Symbolic and Mythological Animals |pages=25–26 |year=1992 |publisher=Aquarian Press |location=London |isbn=1-85538-118-4}}</ref> and in modern English [[heraldry|heraldic]] tradition, a bat means "Awareness of the powers of darkness and chaos".<ref>{{cite web |title=Heraldic "Meanings" |publisher=American College of Heraldry |accessdate=2006-04-30 |url=http://www.americancollegeofheraldry.org/achsymbols.html}}</ref>
  
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The three species of actual vampire bats are all [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to Latin America, and there is no evidence to suggest that they had any [[Old World]] relatives within human memory. It is therefore impossible that the folkloric vampire represents a distorted presentation or memory of the vampire bat. The bats were named after the folkloric vampire rather than vice versa; the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' records their folkloric use in English from 1734 and the zoological not until 1774. Although the vampire bat's bite is usually not harmful to a person, the bat has been known to actively feed on humans and large prey such as cattle and often leave the trademark, two-prong bite mark on its victim's skin.<ref name="Cohen2"/>
  
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The literary [[Count Dracula|Dracula]] transforms into a bat several times in the novel, and vampire bats themselves are mentioned twice in it. The 1927 stage production of ''Dracula'' followed the novel in having Dracula turn into a bat, as did the [[Dracula (1931 film)|film]], where [[Béla Lugosi]] would transform into a bat.<ref name="Cohen2"/> The bat transformation scene would again be used by [[Lon Chaney, Jr.|Lon Chaney Jr.]] in 1943's ''[[Son of Dracula (1943 film)|Son of Dracula]]''.<ref>Skal (1996) pp. 19–21.</ref>
  
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== In modern fiction ==
  
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<!--**This section is a general overview, do not add cultural references here, add them to the subarticles... Thanks.*****-->
  
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[[File:Bela lugosi dracula.jpg|thumb|[[Count Dracula]] as portrayed by [[Béla Lugosi]] in 1931's ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'']]
  
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{{main|List of fictional vampires}}
  
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The vampire is now a fixture in popular fiction. Such fiction began with 18th-century poetry and continued with 19th-century short stories, the first and most influential of which was [[John Polidori]]'s ''The Vampyre'' (1819), featuring the vampire [[Lord Ruthven (vampire)|Lord Ruthven]]. Lord Ruthven's exploits were further explored in a series of vampire plays in which he was the anti-hero. The vampire theme continued in [[penny dreadful]] serial publications such as ''[[Varney the Vampire]]'' (1847) and culminated in the pre-eminent vampire novel of all time: ''[[Dracula]]'' by Bram Stoker, published in 1897.<ref name="Christopher">Christopher Frayling (1992) ''Vampyres&nbsp;– Lord Byron to Count Dracula''.</ref> Over time, some attributes now regarded as integral became incorporated into the vampire's profile: fangs and vulnerability to sunlight appeared over the course of the 19th century, with Varney the Vampire and [[Count Dracula]] both bearing protruding teeth,<ref name="Skal99">Skal(1996) p. 99.</ref> and [[Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau|Murnau's]] ''[[Nosferatu]]'' (1922) fearing daylight.<ref name="Skal104">Skal(1996) p. 104.</ref> The cloak appeared in stage productions of the 1920s, with a high collar introduced by playwright [[Hamilton Deane]] to help Dracula 'vanish' on stage.<ref name="Skal62">Skal(1996) p. 62.</ref> Lord Ruthven and Varney were able to be healed by moonlight, although no account of this is known in traditional folklore.<ref name="SU389">Silver & Ursini, pp. 38–39.</ref> Implied though not often explicitly documented in folklore, [[immortality]] is one attribute which features heavily in vampire film and literature. Much is made of the price of eternal life, namely the incessant need for blood of former equals.<ref>Bunson, p. 131.</ref>
  
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=== Literature ===
  
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{{main|Vampire literature}}
  
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[[Image:Carmilla.jpg|thumb|"[[Carmilla]]" by [[D. H. Friston]], 1872, from ''The Dark Blue'']]
  
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The vampire or revenant first appeared in poems such as ''The Vampire'' (1748) by [[Heinrich August Ossenfelder]], ''[[Lenore (ballad)|Lenore]]'' (1773) by [[Gottfried August Bürger]], ''Die Braut von Corinth'' ''The Bride of Corinth'' (1797) by [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], [[Robert Southey]]'s ''Thalaba the Destroyer'' (1801), John Stagg's "The Vampyre" (1810), [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]]'s [[Posthumous Fragments of Margaret Nicholson|"The Spectral Horseman"]] (1810) ("Nor a yelling vampire reeking with gore") and "Ballad" in ''[[St. Irvyne]]'' (1811) about a reanimated corpse, Sister Rosa, [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]]'s unfinished ''[[Christabel (poem)|Christabel]]'' and [[Lord Byron]]'s ''[[The Giaour]]''.<ref name="Marigny poems">Marigny, pp. 114–115.</ref> Byron was also credited with the first prose fiction piece concerned with vampires: ''The Vampyre'' (1819). However this was in reality authored by Byron's personal physician, [[John Polidori]], who adapted an enigmatic fragmentary tale of his illustrious patient, "Fragment of a Novel" (1819), also known as "The Burial: A Fragment".<ref name="Cohen">Cohen, pp. 271–274.</ref><ref name="Christopher"/> Byron's own dominating personality, mediated by his lover [[Lady Caroline Lamb]] in her unflattering ''roman-a-clef'', ''Glenarvon'' (a Gothic fantasia based on Byron's wild life), was used as a model for Polidori's undead protagonist [[Lord Ruthven (vampire)|Lord Ruthven]]. ''The Vampyre'' was highly successful and the most influential vampire work of the early 19th century.<ref name="SU378">Silver & Ursini, pp. 37–38.</ref>
  
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''[[Varney the Vampire]]'' was a landmark popular mid-[[Victorian era]] [[gothic horror]] story by [[James Malcolm Rymer]] (alternatively attributed to [[Thomas Preskett Prest]]), which first appeared from 1845 to 1847 in a series of pamphlets generally referred to as ''[[penny dreadful]]s'' because of their inexpensive price and typically gruesome contents. The story was published in book form in 1847 and runs to 868 double-columned pages. It has a distinctly suspenseful style, using vivid imagery to describe the horrifying exploits of Varney.<ref name="SU389"/> Another important addition to the genre was [[Sheridan Le Fanu]]'s [[lesbian vampire]] story ''[[Carmilla]]'' (1871). Like Varney before her, the vampire Carmilla is portrayed in a somewhat sympathetic light as the compulsion of her condition is highlighted.<ref name="SU401">Silver & Ursini, pp. 40–41.</ref>
  
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No effort to depict vampires in popular fiction was as influential or as definitive as [[Bram Stoker|Bram Stoker's]] ''Dracula'' (1897).<ref name="SU43">Silver & Ursini, p. 43.</ref> Its portrayal of vampirism as a disease of contagious demonic possession, with its undertones of sex, blood and death, struck a chord in [[Victorian era|Victorian]] Europe where tuberculosis and [[syphilis]] were common. The vampiric traits described in Stoker's work merged with and dominated folkloric tradition, eventually evolving into the modern fictional vampire. Drawing on past works such as ''The Vampyre'' and "Carmilla", Stoker began to research his new book in the late 19th century, reading works such as ''The Land Beyond the Forest'' (1888) by [[Emily Gerard]] and other books about Transylvania and vampires. In London, a colleague mentioned to him the story of [[Vlad III the Impaler|Vlad Ţepeş]], the "real-life Dracula," and Stoker immediately incorporated this story into his book. The first chapter of the book was omitted when it was published in 1897, but it was released in 1914 as ''Dracula's Guest.''<ref name="Marigny Drac">Marigny, pp. 82–85.</ref>
  
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The latter part of the 20th century saw the rise of multi-volume vampire epics. The first of these was Gothic romance writer [[Marilyn Ross|Marilyn Ross']] ''[[Barnabas Collins]]'' series (1966–71), loosely based on the contemporary American TV series ''[[Dark Shadows]]''. It also set the trend for seeing vampires as poetic [[tragic hero]]es rather than as the more traditional embodiment of evil. This formula was followed in novelist Anne Rice's highly popular and influential ''[[Vampire Chronicles]]'' (1976–2003).<ref name="SU205">Silver & Ursini, p. 205.</ref>
  
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The 21st century brought more examples of vampire fiction, such as [[J.R. Ward]]'s [[Black Dagger Brotherhood]] series, and other highly popular vampire books which appeal to teenagers and young adults. Such vampiric [[paranormal romance]] novels and allied vampiric [[chick-lit]] and vampiric [[occult detective]] stories are a remarkably popular and ever-expanding contemporary publishing phenomenon.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/life/books/news/2006-06-28-vampire-romance_x.htm Vampire Romance].</ref> [[Leslie Esdaile Banks|L.A. Banks']] [[The Vampire Huntress Legend Series]], [[Laurell K. Hamilton]]'s erotic [[Anita Blake: Vampire Hunter]] series, and [[Kim Harrison]]'s [[Hollows (series)|The Hollows]] series, portray the vampire in a variety of new perspectives, some of them unrelated to the original legends. Vampires in the [[Twilight (series)|''Twilight'' series]] (2005–2008) by [[Stephenie Meyer]] ignore the effects of garlic and crosses, and are not harmed by sunlight (although it does reveal their supernatural nature).<ref name="slate">{{cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/id/2205143/|title=I Vant To Upend Your Expectations: Why film vampires always break all the vampire rules|last=Beam|first=Christopher |date=20 November 2008|work=Slate Magazine|accessdate=2009-07-17}}</ref> [[Richelle Mead]] further deviates from traditional vampires in her [[Vampire Academy (series)|''Vampire Academy'' series]] (2007–present), basing the novels on Romanian lore with two races of vampires, one good and one evil, as well as half-vampires.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pnwlocalnews.com/east_king/kir/lifestyle/79852562.html |title=Vampire buzz takes bite in Kirkland|publisher=Pnwlocalnews.com |date=21 December 2009 |accessdate=2010-12-05}}</ref>
  
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=== Film and television ===
  
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{{main|Vampire film}}
  
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[[Image:NosferatuShadow.jpg|thumb|Iconic scene from [[F. W. Murnau]]'s ''[[Nosferatu]]'', 1922]]
  
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Considered one of the preeminent figures of the classic horror film, the vampire has proven to be a rich subject for the film and gaming industries. [[Dracula in popular culture|Dracula is a major character]] in more films than any other but Sherlock Holmes, and many early films were either based on the novel of ''Dracula'' or closely derived from it. These included the landmark 1922 German silent film ''[[Nosferatu]]'', directed by [[F. W. Murnau]] and featuring the first film portrayal of Dracula—although names and characters were intended to mimic ''Dracula'''s, Murnau could not obtain permission to do so from Stoker's widow, and had to alter many aspects of the film. In addition to this film was Universal's ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'' (1931), starring Béla Lugosi as the Count in what was the first talking film to portray Dracula. The decade saw several more vampire films, most notably ''[[Dracula's Daughter]]'' in 1936.<ref name="Marigny film1">Marigny, pp. 90–92.</ref>
  
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The legend of the vampire was cemented in the film industry when Dracula was reincarnated for a new generation with the celebrated [[Hammer Horror]] series of films, starring [[Christopher Lee]] as the Count. The successful 1958 ''[[Dracula (1958 film)|Dracula]]'' starring Lee was followed by seven sequels. Lee returned as Dracula in all but two of these and became well known in the role.<ref name="Marigny film2">Marigny, pp. 92–95.</ref> By the 1970s, vampires in films had diversified with works such as ''[[Count Yorga, Vampire]]'' (1970), an African Count in 1972's ''[[Blacula]]'', the BBC's ''[[Count Dracula (1977)|Count Dracula]]'' featuring French actor [[Louis Jourdan]] as Dracula and [[Frank Finlay]] as Abraham Van Helsing, and a Nosferatu-like vampire in 1979's ''[[Salem's Lot (1979 TV mini-series)|Salem's Lot]]'', and a remake of ''Nosferatu'' itself, titled ''Nosferatu the Vampyre'' with [[Klaus Kinski]] the same year. Several films featured female, often lesbian, vampire antagonists such as Hammer Horror's ''[[The Vampire Lovers]]'' (1970) based on Carmilla, though the plotlines still revolved around a central evil vampire character.<ref name="Marigny film2"/>
  
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The pilot for the Dan Curtis 1972 television series ''[[Kolchak: The Night Stalker]]'' revolved around reporter Carl Kolchak hunting a vampire on the Las Vegas strip. Later films showed more diversity in plotline, with some focusing on the vampire-hunter, such as [[Blade (comics)|Blade]] in the [[Marvel Comics]]' [[Blade (film series)|''Blade'']] films and the film ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)|Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]''. ''Buffy'', released in 1992, foreshadowed a vampiric presence on television, with adaptation to a long-running hit [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer (TV series)|TV series]] of the same name and its spin-off ''[[Angel (TV series)|Angel]]''. Still others showed the vampire as protagonist, such as 1983's ''[[The Hunger (1983 film)|The Hunger]]'', 1994's ''[[Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles]]'' and its indirect sequel of sorts ''[[Queen of the Damned (film)|Queen of the Damned]]'', and the 2007 series ''[[Moonlight (TV series)|Moonlight]]''. ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' was a noteworthy 1992 film which became the then-highest grossing vampire film ever.<ref name="SU208">Silver & Ursini, p. 208.</ref> This increase of interest in vampiric plotlines led to the vampire being depicted in films such as ''[[Underworld (2003 film)|Underworld]]'' and ''[[Van Helsing (film)|Van Helsing]]'', and the Russian ''[[Night Watch (2004 film)|Night Watch]]'' and a TV miniseries remake of ''[['Salem's Lot (2004 TV miniseries)|'Salem's Lot]]'', both from 2004. The series ''[[Blood Ties (TV series)|Blood Ties]]'' premiered on [[Lifetime Television]] in 2007, featuring a character portrayed as Henry Fitzroy, illegitimate son of [[Henry VIII of England]] turned vampire, in modern-day Toronto, with a female former Toronto detective in the starring role. A 2008 series from HBO, entitled ''[[True Blood]]'', gives a [[American South|Southern]] take to the vampire theme.<ref name="slate"/> Another popular vampire-related show is CW's ''[[The Vampire Diaries]]''. The continuing popularity of the vampire theme has been ascribed to a combination of two factors: the representation of [[human sexual behavior|sexuality]] and the perennial dread of mortality.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bartlett |first=Wayne|coauthors=Flavia Idriceanu |title=Legends of Blood: The Vampire in History and Myth |year=2005 |publisher=NPI Media Group |location=London |isbn=0-7509-3736-X |page=46}}</ref>
  
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Another "vampiric" series that has recently come out is the ''[[The Twilight Saga (film series)|Twilight Saga]]'', a series of films based on the book series of the same name.
  
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In quite another type of depiction, [[Count von Count]], a harmless and friendly vampire parodying Bela Lugosi's depictions, is a major character on the children's television series ''[[Sesame Street]].'' He teaches counting and simple arithmetic through his compulsion to count everything, a trait he shares with certain other vampires of folklore.
  
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=== Games ===
  
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The [[role-playing game]] ''[[Vampire: the Masquerade]]'' has been influential upon modern vampire fiction and elements of its terminology, such as ''embrace'' and ''sire'', have become widely used. Popular [[List of vampire video games|video games about vampires]] include ''[[Castlevania]]'', which is an extension of the original Bram Stoker ''Dracula'' novel, and ''[[Legacy of Kain]]''.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=stJxdpZVl_wC&pg=PA646 |title=Icons of horror and the supernatural |volume=2 |author=S. T. Joshi |pages=645–6 |date=January 2007 |isbn=978-0-313-33782-6}}</ref> Vampires are also sporadically portrayed in other games, including ''[[The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion]]'', when a character can become afflicted with porphyric haemophilia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://vgstrategies.about.com/library/Oblivion-Vampires-FAQ.htm |title=Vampirism in Oblivion}}</ref> A different take on vampires is presented in Bethesda's other game ''[[Fallout 3]]'' with "The Family". Members of the Family are afflicted with a manic desire to [[Cannibalism|consume human flesh]], but restrict themselves to drinking blood to avoid becoming complete monsters.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.falloutwiki.com/The_Family |title=The Family}}</ref>
  
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== Notes ==
  
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{{Reflist|2}}
  
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== References ==
  
−
{{Refbegin}}
  
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* {{cite book|last=Barber|first=Paul|title=Vampires, Burial and Death: Folklore and Reality|year=1988 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-300-04126-8}}
  
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* {{cite book|last=Bunson|first=Matthew|title=The Vampire Encyclopedia|year=1993|publisher=Thames & Hudson|location=London|isbn=0-500-27748-6}}
  
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* {{de icon}} {{cite book|last=Burkhardt|first=Dagmar|title=Beiträge zur Südosteuropa-Forschung: Anlässlich des I. Internationalen Balkanologenkongresses in Sofia 26. VIII.-1. IX. 1966|chapter=Vampirglaube und Vampirsage auf dem Balkan|year=1966|publisher=Rudolf Trofenik |location=Munich|oclc=1475919}}
  
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* {{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Daniel|title=Encyclopedia of Monsters: Bigfoot, Chinese Wildman, Nessie, Sea Ape, Werewolf and many more...|year=1989|publisher=Michael O'Mara Books Ltd|location=London|isbn=0-948397-94-2}}
  
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* {{fr icon}} {{cite book|last=Créméné|first=Adrien|title=La mythologie du vampire en Roumanie|year=1981|publisher=Rocher|location=Monaco|isbn=2-268-00095-8}}
  
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* {{fr icon}} {{cite book|last=Faivre|first=Antoine|title=Les Vampires. Essai historique, critique et littéraire|year=1962|location=Paris |publisher= Eric Losfeld|oclc=6139817}}
  
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* {{fr icon}} {{cite book|last=Féval|first=Paul|title=Les tribunaux secrets : ouvrage historique|year=1851–1852|location=Paris |publisher= E. et V. Penaud frères}}
  
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* {{cite book|last=Frayling|first=Christopher|title=Vampyres, Lord Byron to Count Dracula|year=1991 |location=London|publisher=Faber|isbn=0-571-16792-6}}
  
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* {{cite book |last=Hoyt |first=Olga |title=Lust for Blood: The Consuming Story of Vampires |year=1984 |chapter=The Monk's Investigation |publisher=Scarborough House |location=Chelsea |isbn=0-8128-8511-2}}
  
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* {{it icon}} {{cite book|last=Introvigne|first=Massimo|title=La stirpe di Dracula: Indagine sul vampirismo dall'antichità ai nostri giorni |year=1997 |location=Milan |publisher=Mondadori |isbn=88-04-42735-3}}<!--Coll. Antropologia-->
  
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* {{cite book |last=Hurwitz |first=Siegmund |editor=Gela Jacobson (trans.) |year=1992 |origyear=1980 |title=Lilith, the First Eve: Historical and Psychological Aspects of the Dark Feminine |location=Einsiedeln, Switzerland |isbn=3-85630-522-X |publisher=Daimon Verlag}}
  
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* {{cite book |last=Jennings |first=Lee Byron |chapter=An Early German Vampire Tale: Wilhelm Waiblinger's 'Olura' |editor=Reinhard Breymayer and Hartmut Froeschle (eds.)|year=2004 |origyear=1986 |title=In dem milden und glücklichen Schwaben und in der Neuen Welt: Beiträge zur Goethezeit |location=Stuttgart |publisher=Akademischer Verlag Stuttgart |isbn=3-88099-428-5 |pages=295–306}}
  
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* {{cite book|last=Jones|first=Ernest |title=On the Nightmare |chapter=The Vampire |year=1931 |publisher=Hogarth Press and Institute of Psycho-Analysis |location=London |oclc=2382718|isbn=0-394-54835-3}}
  
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* {{cite book|last=Marigny|first=Jean|title=Vampires: The World of the Undead |year=1993 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=London |isbn=0-500-30041-0}}
  
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* {{cite book|last=McNally |first=Raymond T. |title=Dracula Was a Woman |year=1983 |publisher=McGraw Hill |isbn=0-07-045671-2}}
  
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* {{cite book|last=Schwartz |first=Howard |title=Lilith's Cave: Jewish tales of the supernatural |publisher=Harper & Row |year=1988 |location=San Francisco |isbn=0-06-250779-6}}
  
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* {{cite book|last=Skal|first=David J.|title=The Monster Show: A Cultural History of Horror |year=1993 |publisher=Penguin |location=New York |isbn=0-14-024002-0}}
  
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* {{cite book|last=Skal|first=David J.|title=V is for Vampire |year=1996 |location=New York |publisher=Plume |isbn=0-452-27173-8}}
  
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* {{cite book|last=Silver|first= Alain|coauthors=James Ursini|title=The Vampire Film: From Nosferatu to Bram Stoker's Dracula|year=1993|publisher=Limelight|location=New York|isbn=0-87910-170-9}}
  
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* {{cite book |last=Summers |first=Montague |authorlink=Montague Summers |year=2005 |origyear=1928 |title=Vampires and Vampirism |location=Mineola, NY |publisher=Dover |isbn=0-486-43996-8}} (Originally published as ''The Vampire: His Kith and Kin'')
  
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* {{cite book |last=Summers |first=Montague |year=1996 |origyear=1929 |title=The Vampire in Europe |location=Gramercy Books |publisher=New York |isbn=0-517-14989-3}} (also published as ''The Vampire in Lore and Legend'', ISBN 0-486-41942-8)
  
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* {{sr icon}} {{cite book|last=Vuković|first=Milan T.|title=Народни обичаји, веровања и пословице код Срба|publisher=Сазвежђа|year=2004|location=Belgrade|isbn=86-83699-08-0}}
  
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* {{Cite journal
  
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| last = Wilson
  
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| first = Katharina M
  
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| title = The History of the Word "Vampire"
  
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| journal = Journal of the History of Ideas
  
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| volume = 46
  
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| issue = 4
  
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| pages = 577–583
  
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| date = Oct.&nbsp;– Dec., 1985| doi = 10.2307/2709546
  
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| id =
  
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| jstor = 2709546 }}
  
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* {{cite book |last=Wright |first=Dudley |title=The Book of Vampires |year=1973 |location=New York |publisher=Causeway Books |origyear=1914 |isbn=0-88356-007-0}} (Originally published as ''Vampire and Vampirism''; also published as ''The History of Vampires'')
  
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{{Refend}}
  
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== External links ==
  
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{{Wiktionary}}
  
 
{{Library resources box
  
{{Library resources box
 
|onlinebooks=no
  
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* [[Christopher Frayling]] (1992) ''Vampyres: Lord Byron to Count Dracula'' (1992) ISBN 0-571-16792-6
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* {{Commons-inline}}
  
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* Freeland, Cynthia A. (2000) ''The Naked and the Undead: Evil and the Appeal of Horror''. Westview Press.
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* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
  
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* Holte, James Craig. (1997) ''Dracula in the Dark: The Dracula Film Adaptations''. Greenwood Press.
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* {{Wikisource-inline|Category:Vampires|Vampire}}
  
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* Melton, J. Gordon. (1999) ''The Vampire Book: The Encyclopedia of the Undead''. Visible Ink Press.
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* [http://www.blooferland.com/drc/index.php?title=Journal_of_Dracula_Studies ''Journal of Dracula Studies'']
  
  +
* [[Montague Summers]] (1928) ''The Vampire: His Kith and Kin'', (book reprinted with alternate title: ''Vampires and Vampirism'' ISBN 0-486-43996-8). Chapter 5 - "The Vampire in Literature" is reprinted in Clive Bloom (2007) ''Gothic Horror'': 108-126. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
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*M. J. Trow (2003) ''Vlad the Impaler''. Sutton: Stroud.
   
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Revision as of 20:04, 20 September 2014

Comic books

Comic books and graphic novels which feature vampires include Vampirella (Warren Publishing, 1969), Morbius, the Living Vampire (Marvel, 1971), Tomb of Dracula (Marvel Comics, 1972), Blade (Marvel, 1973), I...Vampire (DC Comics, 1981), Hellsing (Shonen Gahosha, 1997), 30 Days of Night (IDW Publishing, 2002), Chibi Vampire (Monthly Dragon Age, 2003), "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure" (Weekly Shonen Jump 1986-2004, Ultra Jump 2004-) Rosario + Vampire (Monthly Shōnen Jump 2004), Vampire Knight (LaLa, 2005), Blood Alone (MediaWorks, 2005), Dracula vs. King Arthur (Silent Devil Productions, 2005), Dance in the Vampire Bund (Media Factory, 2006), Anita Blake: Vampire Hunter: Guilty Pleasures (Dabel Brothers Productions/Marvel Comics, 2007), Half Dead (Dabel Brothers Productions/Marvel Comics, 2007), Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight (Dark Horse Comics, 2007), Nosferatu (Viper Comics, 2010), Twilight: The Graphic Novel (2010)[1] and He's My Only Vampire (Kodansha, 2010).[2]

Proinsias Cassidy, the supporting lead male in Garth Ennis's comic book series Preacher (DC/Vertigo, 1995), is a vampire of Irish origin. In addition, many major superheroes have faced vampire supervillains at some point. In the Belgo-French comic Le Bal du rat mort,[3] police inspector Jean Lamorgue is a hybrid vampire and he is a king of rats. He is guiding an invasion of rats in Ostend and he sucks the blood of his human victims.

In 2009, Zuda Comics launched La Morté Sisters. A story of teenage vampirism in a Catholic orphanage taking place in South Philadelphia. The story follows new girl Maddie in a world of ninja nuns and black magic.[4]

Magazines

Magazines which feature vampires include Bite me magazine (launched 1999). Typical features include interviews with vampire actors, features on famous vampire film classics, vampire-related news, forthcoming vampire film and book releases.

Defunct vampire magazines include Crimson (England); Journal of the Dark (USA), Father Sebastiaan's Vampyre Magazine (USA) and The Velvet Vampyre (available to members of the disbanded The Vampyre Society, England).

References

  1. ↑ http://www.stepheniemeyer.com/
  2. ↑ Aya Shouoto's He's My Only Vampire Manga Will End in 2 More Chapters. Anime News Network (28 July 2014). Retrieved on 28 July 2014.
  3. ↑ (French)Le Bal du rat mort
  4. ↑ http://www.comicmonsters.com/features-1063-LaMorte_Sisters_Interview_with_Tony_Trov_and_Johnny_Zito.html

Bibliography

Template:Library resources box

  • Christopher Frayling (1992) Vampyres: Lord Byron to Count Dracula (1992) ISBN 0-571-16792-6
  • Freeland, Cynthia A. (2000) The Naked and the Undead: Evil and the Appeal of Horror. Westview Press.
  • Holte, James Craig. (1997) Dracula in the Dark: The Dracula Film Adaptations. Greenwood Press.
  • Melton, J. Gordon. (1999) The Vampire Book: The Encyclopedia of the Undead. Visible Ink Press.
  • Montague Summers (1928) The Vampire: His Kith and Kin, (book reprinted with alternate title: Vampires and Vampirism ISBN 0-486-43996-8). Chapter 5 - "The Vampire in Literature" is reprinted in Clive Bloom (2007) Gothic Horror: 108-126. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • M. J. Trow (2003) Vlad the Impaler. Sutton: Stroud.

Template:Horror fiction

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